Subject Index 829 P Palm reading, 519 Parameters, 14–15 Parametric tests defining, 644 efficiency of, 645 Pareto charts, 64–65 Passive and active smoke, 750 Payoff odds, 153 p chart, 713–716 graphs, 714 key elements, 713–714 notation, 714 requirements, 713 software/calculator results, 716 Pearson correlation coefficient, 740 Pearson product moment correlation coefficient, 510 Percentage frequency distribution, 48–49 Percentages conversion to, from fractions, 9 conversion to decimals, 9 probabilities as, 148 Percentiles, 121–130, 265 conversion of, 125–126 defining, 123 finding, 124 Permutations combinations and, 185 defining, 182 mnemonics for, 182 Permutations rule, 182–184 with different items, 182–183 with some identical items, 183–184 Personal security codes, 184 Pew Research Center, 23 P-hacking, 385 Pi, 580 Pictographs, 68 Pie charts, 65–66 Placebo effect, 22, 26, 27 Plus four method, 322 Point estimate, 312–313 confidence interval and, 319, 336–337 defining, 312 population mean, 329–330 sample proportion as, 312 Poisson probability distribution, 232–235 as approximation to binomial, 234–235 defining, 233 formula, 233 mean for, 233 parameters of, 233 properties of, 233 requirements, 233 software/calculator results, 235 Polio experiment, 446 Pooled estimate, 460–461 Pooled sample proportion, 442 Pooling, 460–461 Population abnormal, 421 changes over time in, 46 defining, 4 finite, 289–290 median of single, 648, 652–654, 661 models, 565–566 with normal distribution, 294 standard deviation of, 110 variance of, 110–111 Population mean appropriate distribution for, 337 claims testing about, 404–416, 429–430 confidence interval, 329–330 critical values in, 332 degrees of freedom in, 331–332 with known variables, 337 normality for, 331 notation, 330 one-way ANOVA for, 613 point estimate, 329–330 requirements, 330 round-off rule, 330 sample size and, 329, 337–338 simulation for testing a claim about, 192 student t distribution, 331–332 Population proportion claims testing about, 390–404, 428–429 confidence interval for, 316–317 sample size and, 320–321 Population size, 319 determining, 338 role of, 321 Population standard deviation, 345–352 confidence interval for, 348 notation, 348 requirements, 348 resampling for two, 495–496 round-off rule, 348 Population variance, 345–352 confidence interval, 348 notation, 348 requirements, 348 resampling for two, 495–496 Positively skewed, 57 Posterior probability, 177 Practical significance, 7, 409 Prediction interval, 544–552 defining, 544 formulas for, 544–545 margin of error, 544 requirement, 544 standard error of estimate, 544 Predictor variable, 529 Presidents, 753 Primary sampling units (PSUs), 30 Prior probability, 177 Probabilistic models, 529 Probability area and, 247, 250–253 basic concepts of, 144–153 binomial, 731 classical approach to, 147 complementary events and, 151 complements and, 171–172 conditional, 172–175 convictions and, 172 of events, 146–151 of event that has never occurred, 171 finding values from, 263–266 intuition and, 146 notation for, 146 as percentages, 148 posterior, 177 prior, 177 relative frequency approximation of, 146–147 rounding in, 148 for significance, 142–143 significant results and, 288 simulations, 148, 191 in statistics, 144–145 subjective, 147 with z scores, 249–253 Probability distribution basic concepts of, 205–212 binomial, 218–226 defining, 205 mean of, 208 parameters of, 208 Poisson, 232–235 requirements, 206 round-off rule for, 208 standard deviation for, 208 variance for, 208 Probability formula, 207 Probability histogram, 207 Process data, 702 Proportion, 442–454 bootstrap sample and, 357–358 confidence interval in, 443, 446–448 critical values in, 443, 446 hypothesis testing in, 443 inferences, 442–443 notation for, 274, 442 pooled sample, 442 population. See Population proportion P-value in, 443–445 requirements, 442 rounding, 443 sampling distributions and, 272–273 software/calculator results for, 323–324, 398–399, 448–449 technology and, 444 two, 442–454, 492–493, 594 Prosecutors’ fallacy, 174 Prospective study, 30–31 Publication bias, 7 Push polling, 313
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